Gender Differences in Households’ Expenditure on Higher Education: Evidence from Mongolia

Abstract

The existing evidence suggests that there is a reverse gender gap in higher education in Mongolia. Prior studies on the reverse gender gap in education were based on the gross enrolment rates and did not delve deeper in terms of using empirical data analyzed over an extended time period. This paper investigates gender bias in the households’ expenditure on higher education and tracks changes over the ten-year period from 2008 to 2018 using empirical data. In this regard, this study examines the factors and determinants responsible for the gender bias in the households’ expenditure on higher education. To address these questions, the study employs the Engel curve approach (unconditional educational expenditure) and Hurdle model, which estimates bias in the enrolment decisions and bias in the conditional educational expenditure, both at the household and individual level in 2008 and 2018 using the Household Socio-Economic Survey of Mongolia. Its findings illustrate that gender bias in households’ expenditure on higher education does exist, and it favors girls over boys at the household and individual levels in 2008 and 2018. The findings show that household allocate greater share of education expenditure to females aged 16-18 and 19-24 than to their male counterparts. Statistical analysis suggests that households’ residence and the occupation of household heads are two important factors affecting this gender bias. Thus, if a household resides in the countryside and its head is employed in the agricultural sector, female offspring is more likely to receive higher education than male offspring. Traditional gender roles and the Mongolian way of life, which centers around attending to livestock and requires male labour force, as well as the wage gap are contextual factors that help to explain this gender bias.